Analysis of a Womens Quota in India

Analysis of a Womens Quota in India INTRODUCTION OF WOMENS RESERVATION BILL The question of a womens quota in India is distinct from any other nation because the Constitution of India has already provided for quotas for the Scheduled Castes (SCs) formerly untouchable castes in the Hindu community and the Scheduled Tribes (STs). It has provisions for similar measures for the socially and educationally backward classes now termed as the Other Backward Classes (OBCs). These quotas are for admissions to educational institutions, public sector employment and political representation. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments provided for 33% quotas for womens representation in the local self-government institutions. These Amendments were implemented in 1993. They were enacted without any pressure or persistent demand from women or any other section. Prior to these Amendments the State of Karnataka had introduced 25% womens quota in Panchayati Raj Institutions.1 First elections after the implementation of quotas were held in 1987 (Jain 1996). Later, State of Mah arashtra passed a law providing for 30% reservation of seats for women in rural as well as urban local self-government institutions. It is curious that, in spite of over 1,000,000 elected women representatives flooding the local governments; the womens movement in India was totally silent over this issue till 1996. The smooth passage of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments encouraged all major national political parties to commit themselves to extending 33% womens quota to state legislatures and Parliament. The 81st Constitutional Amendment Bill, popularly known as the Womens Reservation Bill, was introduced in the Parliament in 1996 to that effect. The womens movement had no role in bringing about this Bill. It did offer some inputs in the Committee hearings but it became vocal and visible on this issue only after its first debacle in eleventh Lok Sabha. Even then, this visibility was in the form of demonstrations and sit-ins in front of the Parliament and not by way of proactive intervention in the electoral process by supporting women candidates or recruiting movements spokespersons in elective roles on various levels. OBJECTIVES OF WOMENS RESERVATION BILL The proposer of the policy of reservation state that although equality of the sexes is enshrined in the Constitution, it is not the reality. Therefore, forceful affirmative action is required to improve the condition of women. Also, there is evidence that political reservation has increased redistribution of resources in favour of the groups which benefit from reservation. A study about the effect of reservation for women in panchayats shows that women elected under the reservation policy invest more in the public goods closely linked to womens concerns. In 2008, commissioned by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, reveals that a sizeable proportion of women representatives perceive an enhancement in their self-esteem, confidence and decision-making ability. Some opponents argue that separate constituencies for women would not only narrow their outlook but lead to perpetuation of unequal status because they would be seen as not competing on merit. For instance, in the Constituent Assembly, Mrs Renuka Ray argued against reserving seats for women: When there is reservation of seats for women, the question of their consideration for general seats, however competent they may be, does not usually arise. We feel that women will get more chances if the consideration is of ability alone.12 Opponents also contend that reservation would not lead to political empowerment of women because: (a) Larger issues of electoral reforms such as measures to check criminalisation of politics, internal democracy in political parties, influence of black money, etc. have not been addressed, (b) It could lead to election of proxies or relatives of male candidates. LOK SABHA Reserved seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in the state or union territory. If a state or union territory has only one seat in the Lok Sabha, that seat shall be reserved for women in the first general election of every cycle of three elections. If there are two seats, each shall be reserved once in a cycle of three elections. Similar rules apply for seats reserved for SC/STs. Of the two seats in the Lok Sabha reserved for Anglo Indians, one will be reserved for women in each of the two elections in a cycle of three elections. LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES The Bill reserves one-third of all seats in the legislative assemblies that are to be filled by direct election for women. Such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in the state. For SC/ST seats, similar rules as those for the Lok Sabha apply. KEY FEATURES 1. As nearly as may be one-third of all seats in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies shall be reserved for women. 2. Reservation shall apply in case of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) as well. 3. Seats to be reserved in rotation will be determined by draw of lots in such a way that a seat shall be reserved only once in three consecutive general elections. DEMOCRACY The concept of democracy will only assume true and dynamic significance when political parties and national legislatures are decided upon jointly by men and women in equitable regard for the interests and aptitudes of both halves of the population. Inter-Parliamentary Union, 1994 While there is no universally accepted definition of democracy, any functional analysis must include two fundamental principles: all members of the society must have equal access to power, and all members must enjoy universally recognised freedoms and liberties. The Indian model of democracy also prioritises representation so as to avoid the pitfalls of majority rule. On this basis, there already exists a quota for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. It is clear from the statistics alone that women do not have easy access to raditional power structures. Their entry into public spaces is persistently isabled by prevailing historical constructions of gender, created and perpetuated by the dominant institutions such as family, religion, education and the State. Nevertheless, the nature of this relationship also means that the same institutions which created the imbalance can take responsibility for its repair. The final objective of reservation is to increase womens visibility in all policy decisions on the basis that all policy decisions affect women as well as men, and affect women differently to men. This applies equally to the harder issues such as trade, industry, agriculture, defence, employment etc., as it does to those softer issues which are traditionally assigned to women politicians. Political participation of all sections of society is essential for building a functioning and representative democracy. Women must therefore be present in new arenas of decision making, with their experiences, perspectives and visions of the future informing public debate. Reservation will provide elected women with the ability to compliment elected men in making the rules that apply equally to both sexes, and which women are equally expected to abide by. Reservations on Reservation The greatest impediment to the passing of the Bill is the insistence from certain political lobbies on a quota within a quota for women of other backward classes (OBC). The concern is that, without these provisions, elected women will come from the ruling classes alone and will selectively represent the interests of these socio-political elite. OBCs and Muslim women are not currently represented Within the Womens Reservation Bill simply because there is no general reservation for OBCs and Muslims and as such a sub-quota within the Womens Reservation Bill may be unconstitutional. Whilst it might be possible to add a sub-clause, the push should first be for a Constitutional Amendment that enables a general OBC quota and/or a non-secular quota for Muslims. This was the recommendation of the Joint Select Committee Formed in 1996, which responded to a common delegation of backward caste MPs with the assertion that sub-reservations for OBC women were not legally permissible until a separate constitutional amendment established a general quota. In addition to a number of minor technical adjustments, the Committee then recommended that the bill be passed into law as soon as possible. Interestingly, neither Mulayam Singh Yadav of the Samajwadi Party nor any other leader has of yet brought a proposal for reservation for OBCs or other minorities to be debated and discussed in the Parliament. Once the Womens Reservation Bill is passed, quotas for general reservation for other social groups can be raised in the parliament as a separate Issue, with one third of the seats within these distinct quotas subsequently reserved for women. Even with no general quota, it is difficult to understand why it is assumed that OBCs will be less well represented upon the implementation of womens reservation. To quote the former Judge of Delhi High Court, Justice Rajinder Sachar (PUCL Report, 2003), There are about 200 OBC candidates in the Lok Sabha It is not their public service, but merely the caste configuration that has preferred them. Similar results will follow even after the reservation for women. CLIMRAP Subsequently, womens organisations and the National Commission for Women (NCW) have accused detractors in parliament of making demandsfor OBC sub-quotas simply to undermine the bill and safeguard their own seats, or alternatively to keep their Muslim and OBC vote bank intact at a highly opportune time. They claim that, within the parties most Protesting about the need for female representation from backward classes, there are remarkably few female candidates or elected representatives: the Samajwadi Party (SP), for example, has 2 women representatives out of a total of 39 MPs. If these MPs were truly concerned about the lot of OBC women, it should have been possible before now to distribute party tickets to female candidates from OBCs and other minorities. There are also very real dangers in compartmentalising the Issue of womens empowerment. The NCW have noted that quotas are one of the few issues to unite women in parliament from across party lines often because many of these women have personally witnessed the systemic discrimination that impedes womens participation in electoral and political procedures. Reservation is a tool that begins to repair the damage caused by Centuries of discrimination that exists ubiquitously across political parties, across social classes and across community divisions. Of any excluded group, the most deprived member will always be a woman. 22.5 per cent of seats in Parliament are already reserved for SC/ST of which just over 7 per cent are held by women and around 200 MPs are from OBCs (well over a third of the Lok Sabha). In contrast, just 8 per cent of seats in the national legislature are held by women. There is undoubtedly a need to further the participation of Lower castes and classes, but an alternative prop is needed to the Womens Reservation Bill. The government cannot continue to be sidelined on this issue because there are men in Parliament who apparently possess more pressing Concerns than the liberation of half the population. Ultimately, mens very presence in Parliament will always enable them to shout louder and more often Until the Bill is passed. METHODOLOGY Womens Rights and Social Development I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved. B.R. Ambedkar Taking measures to enhance the status and visibility of women is critical for sustainable progress against the range of human development indicators, Both because women are particularly vulnerable to social and economic marginalisation when resources are scarce, and because women are critical agents in the development processes. According to various international reports, development in India is being severely hampered by the breadth of the gender gap and limited female participation in traditionally male dominated institutions and social strata as in below: India and the Gender Gap The World Economic Forums annual Gender Gap Report (2007) affirmed that there are just six countries Iran, Bahrain, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen performing worse against economic parameters, with women constituting a mere 3 per cent of legislators, senior officials and managers and making up 90 per cent of informal workers in the economy. Against other major indicators, there is also immense cause for concern: India has the largest number of maternal deaths in the world and shocking rates of female malnutrition, and a woman in India has lesser chance of survival than in all but 2 of 128 countries. The oft-discussed imbalance in the sex ratio can be attributed not only to female infanticide, as is often assumed but to sustained neglect from infancy of female health, nutrition and wellbeing. A girl child is up to 3 times more likely to be malnourished than her brother (UN), and is also significantly more likely to drop out of school before completing a full eight years of education. As well as passive neglect, violence against women and girl children is on the rise: the number of rapes per day has increased by nearly 700 per cent since 1971, and thousands of dowry deaths occur each year (National Crime Records Bureau). There are countless studies to demonstrate the effectiveness of womens empowerment as a tool for development. For example, Kerala and Manipur have experienced rapid progress in improving health and reducing mortality and fertility rates the benefits of which affect men as well as women and in these states women also play a vital social and economic role. This correlation should not be surprising, given that nutrition and child health generally fall within the remit of the womans household decisions. Ultimately, healthy, educated and empowered women are more likely to raise healthy, educated and confident children and engage positively with the life of the community (UNICEF). To eliminate gender discrimination and promote female empowerment, womens decision making capacity must therefore be enhanced within the household, the workplace and the political sphere. Increased political influence should have reverberations for womens equality in the other two realms, which will in turn have implications for Indias performance against all milestones for social progress. Reservation of seats is a basic, consistent and logical step towards both womens emancipation and inclusive development particularly for a government which promised that the equal access to participation and decision making of women in the social, political and economic life of the nation would be at the heart of its agenda (National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001). Experiences in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) The challenges faced by elected women in local government are often extreme, and have been widely documented by both proponents and critics of womens reservation. However, it is important to note that there are also many success stories from within the PRIs. Where womens presence has been meaningful, they have been able to make a significant contribution to the life of the community and offer an alternative perspective to the traditional status quo. Womens panchayats have also successfully campaigned and taken action on pressing issues that impact on womens rights such as alcoholism, child marriage, domestic violence and gambling. Nevertheless, the experiments with reservation in PRIs have demonstrated that it will be necessary to ensure that women access equal opportunities to progress within the political system, and that fixed reservation in the Lok Sabha does not act as a seal on participation. Few women from PRIs have of yet managed to progress through the ranks and enter State Assemblies, national legislatures etc. Processes of promotion Within decision making bodies must therefore be facilitated, for it is overly simplistic to imagine that prejudice is not dispersed within the institutions of governance themselves. Women demand one third reservation in parliament 30 Aug 2009, 0014 hrs IST, ET Bureau Thursday should have been a red-letter day for Indian women. Thats when the Cabinet agreed to hike reservation for women in all tiers of the Panchayati raj system from the existing 33% to 50%. In a country where the Womens Reservation Bill, reserving a third of the seats in Parliament for women, has been stonewalled for 13 years, the decision marks a victory, however small. But its not enough. Especially if, as many suspect, it is a convenient ploy to draw attention away from the main issue: the inability (unwillingness?) of the government to deliver on its promise of reserving seats for women in parliament. The unstated underlying logic (?) seems to be more women are fine provided they are at the sub-ordinate level of decision making. So give them more seats in Panchayati level institutions that are anyway fairly powerless but dont allow them to sup at the high table of Parliament/state legislatures But is that fair, either to the women or the country? Research suggests that having more women lawmakers makes a huge difference, not just to women, but to society as a whole especially in poor countries. In Rwanda, for instance, a much-needed law that defines rape and protects victims of sexual abuse was passed only after women legislators became a force to reckon with. Their male counterparts saw the subject as taboo. (Rwanda, incidentally, is the first country in the world where women are in a majority in Parliament). Unfortunately, Rwanda is an exception. In the 100 odd years since women were first elected to a national parliament, only 18.4% of seats worldwide are currently held by women. To address this, close to 110 countries have introduced rules to help women get elected. So has India but with one difference. We, or rather our male Parliamentarians, are willing to allow more representation to women, but not where it matters, in Parliament and state legislatures. This is why even as Indian women celebrate Thursdays decision by the Union Cabinet they must see it for what it is mere crumbs! The fact is more than sixty years after independence women are among the most deprived sections of Indian society. In law, the Indian woman has few equals in the world. The Indian Constitution, unlike many others, gave equal rights to women as to men right from day one. In every respect she is on par with the Indian man. But only on paper! In reality, the picture could not be more different. On almost every human development indicator, women trail not just their male counterparts but also women in neighbouring countries; countries that are not only poorer but cannot boast of so many women at the helm of affairs: a president, a chief minister and a powerful political leader at the centre. Take, for instance, maternal mortality rates. Deaths during childbirth in India are way above the S Asia average. In Sri lanka almost all births take place in institutions; in India this number is below 40%. Again, poorest women in Bangladesh have 72 % the health coverage of the richest; in Pakistan the comparable figure is 63 % but in India the number drops to 55% in urban areas and just 37 % in rural areas. This state of affairs has much to do with the fact that less than one in ten legislators in parliament or state assemblies in India is a woman. According to the Delhi-based PRS Legislative Research, women accounted for less than 7% the total MLAs in 28 states and two union territories and little over 9 % of the total number of MPs in the last Lok Sabha. The position has improved in the 15th Lok Sabha, but only marginally. Agreed reservation as a policy instrument is a poor substitute for ensuring equality of opportunity, whether in educational institutions or in jobs or in Parliament. .But having said that, it is nothing but hypocrisy when a political class that regards reservation as an answer to social discrimination suffered by SCs, STs, and now OBCs, argues it is not an answer when it comes to increasing the presence of women in Parliament. Thursdays Cabinets decision to reserve 50% seats in Panchayats for women while stonewalling the Womens Reservation Bill must, therefore, be seen for what it is: a bid to divert attention from the much larger issue at stake. There is no reason why the rest of the country, especially its womenfolk, should fall for it. IMPLICATIONS OF THE BILL The main provisions of the Bill, as introduced in the Rajya Sabha in May 2008, are: 1. Not less than one-third of seats to be reserved in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for women. 2. One-third of the total number of seats reserved under clause (2) of article 330 (the existing quota for Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes) to be reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes or the Scheduled Tribes. 3. Reservation of seats to cease to exist or expire after 15 years of the commencement of the constitutional amendment. 4. To select women candidates through a system of rotation, by which one third of the total number of constituencies to be reserved for women candidates, will be determined through a draw of lots. 5. To consider extending the reservation to Rajya Sabha and the Legislative Councils of States, without making any definite provisions within the scope of the current Bill. KEY SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS 1. There are divergent views on the reservation policy. Proponents stress the necessity of affirmative action to improve the condition of women. Some recent studies on panchayats have shown the positive effect of reservation on empowerment of women and on allocation of resources. 2. Opponents argue that it would perpetuate the unequal status of women since they would not be perceived to be competing on merit. They also contend that this policy diverts attention from the larger issues of electoral reform such as criminalisation of politics and inner party democracy. 3. Reservation of seats in Parliament restricts choice of voters to women candidates. Therefore, some experts have suggested alternate methods such as reservation in political parties and dual member constituencies. 4. Rotation of reserved constituencies in every election may reduce the incentive for an MP to work for his constituency as he may be ineligible to seek re-election from that constituency. 5. The report examining the 1996 womens reservation Bill recommended that reservation be provided for women of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) once the Constitution was amended to allow for reservation for OBCs. It also recommended that reservation be extended to the Rajya Sabha and the Legislative Councils. Neither of these recommendations has been incorporated in the Bill. CONCLUSION As in India there are several reservations like SC, ST and OBC etc. is already present from its independence. However in 1996 a talk of another reservation bill called womens reservation bill was debated to introduce. However it is not applied till now. By the womens reservation bill we can easily prevent discrimination of womens from our society by applying the womens reservation bill. Some leaders like Lalu Prasad Yadav and Mulyam Singh Yadav are not in favour of womens reservation bill because they think that there are already several reservations like SC , ST and OBC etc. some people thinks that they are right while some other are not in favour of this bill. By passing this bill we make womens more responsive and hardworkers. Along with this there is increase in participation of Indian womens. Lawful Representation There is nothing so unequal as the equal treatment of unequals. Aristotle The Constitution of India is a progressive document that guarantees equal rights for both sexes, and entitles women to enjoy economic, social, cultural and political rights on an equal footing with men (Article 325). It proceeds to consider the appropriate use of legislation to redress inequality and prevent the Further infringement of womens fundamental democratic freedoms and human rights. Under Article 15 (3), the State is thereby empowered to make special provisions, legislative or otherwise, to secure womens socio-political advancement. Indian case law has already interpreted the Equal Protection provisions to allow for affirmative action for women. In addition, India is a signatory to a number of international agreements that support proactive state measures for womens political development: 1. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was ratified by India in 1993. Article 3 discusses appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure the full advancement of women. Beyond this, Article 7 affirms that signatories should take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the political and public life of the country. It recognises that, unless countries take active steps to promote this integration, women will never be able to fully enjoy the basic human rights guaranteed in international law. 2. The Inter Parliamentary Unions (IPU) Universal Declaration on Democracy (1997) asserted that the achievement of genuine democracy presupposes a genuine partnership between men and women in the conduct of the affairs of society in which they work in equality and complementarily, drawing mutual enrichment from their differences. 3. The Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA), 1995 affirmed that womens persistent exclusion from decision making was substantially hampering the achievement of democratic transformation, womens empowerment and achieving the goals of sustainable development. The BPfA therefore endorses affirmative action for women in the political spheres. Under the Constitution and other national and international Commitments, the State is thereby under an obligation to protect and promote the human rights of women, including the right to political equality, without any discrimination on the basis of sex. BIBLOGRAPHY http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Columnists/Mythili-Bhusnurmath/Women-demand-one-third-reservation-in-Parliament/articleshow/4949634.cms http://archive.idea.int/women/parl/ch6b.htm http://www.iwdc.org/resources/fact_sheet.htm http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0sid=4srchmode=1vinst=PRODfmt=3startpage=-1clientid=129893vname=PQDRQT=309did=1823009961scaling=FULLts=1257869802vtype=PQDrqt=309TS=1257869857clientId=129893cc=1TS=1257869857cfc=1

Sociology Katelyn Hofstetter

Women’s Rights The social position of Muslim women differs tthroughout time periods and countries, such as Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. The consequences of breaking the laws in these nations differ as well. In addition, different social factors affect the way Muslim women are treated. These social positions are perceived differently amongst men and women in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. In Afghanistan, the leaders of the past Resistance turned Muslim Afghanistan into a strict theocratic state by incorporating religion into the state laws.This theocratic state, also known as the Islamic state of Afghanistan, along with the mujahideen, limited women’s rights in 1992 (Goodwin, 2003:78). Specifically, women are required to follow a strict dress code of wearing proper veils and are banned from watching television or listening to the radio. When a Muslim woman gets married, she becomes her in-law’s property. Women are also prohibited from working, wearing perfum e, receiving an education, participating in political elections and showing any body part that can be considered erotically enticing.In addition, a Muslim woman cannot talk to men that are not related to her (Goodwin, 2003:78-79). One reason women’s rights are restricted is the lack of education and illiteracy of Afghan women. Being illiterate prevents a woman from studying Islam. Therefore, when someone tells her something is Islamic, she automatically believes him because she has no way of knowing otherwise. Not only does illiteracy prevent Muslim women from studying Islam, but it also prevents them from studying their legal rights and the Qur’an. Studying the Qur’an and legal rights would cause women to understand what really is Islamic. https://donemyessay.com/sociology-exam-3-chapters-6-8/Women may lack knowledge of how women live in other nations. Therefore, these women do not resist their lack of rights because they are uninformed of alternative lifestyles of women. In 1921, women’s rights drastically changed. The veil was banned and the first school for girls opened (Goodwin, 2003:88 and 90). In 1964, the constitution of Afghanistan granted equal status to men and women and coeducation (Goodwin, 2003:89). Communism did take over Afghanistan after that event and Aghanistan’s laws for women became much more conservative.Hamida, a college-educated Afghan woman had to stay home with other women and wear the traditional veil due to the drastic change in women’s rights. She greatly suffered and experienced many physical problems due to the drastic change in rights. Her level of education may have been a factor to her sthrong reaction (Goodwin, 2003:91). Hamida’s reaction demonstrates how ed ucated women have a sthronger negative reaction than uneducated women in terms of restrictions. In Iran, women must wear their hijab properly and remain entirely covered in public as soon as they are mature enough to be married.Women are considered mature enough to marry by the age of 9 (Goodwin, 2003:107). According to Zahra Qasim, a store clerk in Iran, dress restrictions are not always formally written down, so rules are somewhat unclear, which leads to women being punished due to laws they are unaware of (Goodwin, 2003:108). Banning the veil could be perceived just as oppressive if not more, than requiring women to wear a veil. Due to banning the veil, some women feel uncomfortable going in public without a veil, causing women to avoid going out in public whenever possible (Hoodfar, 1993).Therefore, wearing the veil in Iran is part of culture and society in Iran. Another reason behind the dress restrictions is husbands feel in control when their wives wear a veil (Goodwin, 2003: 109). Rahnavard has a different perspective on the veil. She believes â€Å"women in the west have been enslaved by fashion, makeup, and turned into objects of sexual attention. â€Å"The veil frees women from the shackles of fashion and enables them to become human beings in their own right,’ she claimed. Once people cease to be distracted by women’s physical appearance, they can begin to hear their views and recognize the inner person’† (Goodwin, 2003: 112-113). Therefore, Rahnavard believes Western women are more oppressed than Muslim women. The veil protects women from being judged and discriminated based on physical appearance, something western women are not protected from. Despite the positive perspectives of the veil in Iran, there are discrepancies between the rights of men and women. Despite the positive perspectives of the veil in Iran, there are discrepancies between the rights of men and women.Maryam Rajavi ran the mujahideen with her husban d and mobilized Iranian women against suppressive regimes, which was the cause of many supporters of Shah to attempt to assassinate Rajavi. Although they did not assassinate Rajavie, they were successful in executing two of her sisters (Goodwin, 2003: 122). Such aassassinations demonstrate how many Iranians sthrongly appose a change in women’s rights. When women fail to follow the rules Iran reinforces, the common punishment involves whipping the woman. Jan Goodwin explains the experience of being whipped as â€Å"The lack of power, being robbed of all dignity.It was a disgusting experience, so degrading, and as violating in its way as rape† (Goodwin, 2003: 112). Within Iran, there are inequalities amongst men and women. For instance, laws in terms of execution differ among genders. Girls have to be at least 9 years old to be executed while boys have to be at least 16 years old (Goodwin, 2003:115). Women can not divorce without the husband’s consent. When a divo rce does occur, the husband typically gets custody of the children (Goodwin, 2003:114). In addition, women must remain virgins before mmarriage. Within the Islamic religion, it is believed virgins automatically go to Paradise following death.This is not necessarily the case for women that lose their virginity before mmarriage. If it is discovered that an unmarried woman is not a virgin, they may be forced to get married (Goodwin, 2003:115). Ssimilarly to Iranian laws, Pakistan also prohibits sex before mmarriage, which is termed as Zina laws. A large ppercentage of the women in Pakistan experience punishment for committing Zina. When a woman commits Zina, despite whether or not she had sex voluntarily, the woman is punished and the man is not. Men often report that a woman committed Zina as a form of revenge of the woman’s close male relative, despite if she really committed Zina.One can only attest that an assault occurred if there are at least four male witnesses that were present during the act and agree that it happened (Goodwin, 2003:51-53). 75% of women in jail are charged with Zina (Goodwin, 2003:52). Such a high ppercentage demonstrates the commonality of charging someone with Zina. The value of a woman’s life is considered half that of a man’s in Pakistan (Goodwin, 2003:55). Women’s lives are so restrictive they are sometimes only allowed outside their home three times in their lifetime, when they are born, when they get married, and when they die.In addition, the windows are frosted so no outsiders can see the woman in her house (Goodwin, 2003:56-57). The cause of the lack of women’s rights is due to education; Pakistani women lack knowledge about their rights (Goodwin, 2003:71). Socioeconomic class plays a factor in women’s rights in Pakistan. The elite rich live in a westernized lifestyle. For instance, the elite have a lifestyle full of materialism. Women often have boyfriends in private, participate in se xual aactivity prior to mmarriage, drink alcohol at parties, and watch movies that have been banned in Pakistan.Unlike the lower socioeconomic classes, the elite women are not considered property to her husband and do not have to live a domesticated lifestyle because they frequently hire people to perform the chores wives are expected to do in a lower class. In this elite class, the parent's of sons arrange their mmarriage with a well-educated woman. The parent's of daughters look for a husband that is professional with an American green card (Goodwin, 2003:68-69). The film, A Matter of Honor, informs the viewer that in Pakistan, Honor Killings are when a woman is killed due to acts that are prohibited through the religious laws the country follows.Family members commit Honor Killings for the sole purpose of preserving the honor of the family. Honor Killings are more common among rural and uneducated people because they do not know how to read the Qur’an to build perceptions from the accurate meanings of the verses. Honor Killings are technically illegal in Pakistan, but they are rarely enforced. Muslim women’s rights are different among different countries and there are many opposing perspectives on Muslim women’s rights. In addition, the reasons why women’s rights continue to be restrictive differ as well.One commonality among Afghanistan and Iran is the wearing of the veil. There are several different perspectives as to why the veil is worn. There are other laws regarding what women can and can not do in which Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan enforce. Not only are there different laws that are enforced, but they way they are enforced differ amongst different factors as well. Despite the trends in the way women are treated in these countries, it is important that people do not generalize these practices among all Muslim women, as this habit leads to false assumptions.

Media and Representation of Black Women - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1060 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2018/12/30 Category Media Essay Type Case study Level High school Tags: Feminism Essay Racism Essay Women Essay Did you like this example? According to Park (165), negative images of the dark women appears two times as often as positive pictures. This fact was reported in the year 2013. Representation of the black woman in the media has raised a great concern as to why in most cases they are used to make representations. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Media and Representation of Black Women" essay for you Create order This representation remains to support negative stereotype on black women in the media up to date. DuBois opinion is that damnation was tied to decentralization of the motherhood which came from western culture. From the beginning, Gammage reports that the powerful ad the most effective site is the contemporary media that secure black woman from being dehumanized. DuBois, states that this agenda is educated by conceptions of racism, femininity and sexism which came as a result of slavery which the black women fell to be target of. Many view the use of images from black woman to be significant and as and as a result these people neglect the cultural view on the use of the black woman in the media for representation. Media presentation of minorities is not seen to have positive impact. According to Bobo (289), feminists among other scholars greatly criticizes this and advocates for human rights to stop this exploitation. The essay will evaluate pros and cons of using black woman in th e media. By analyzing peoples judgments and views on representation of black women in the media there are a lot of cones. Representation of women in the media have a great effect to the society and even the woman represented in the media. First problem is witnessed in the women. Women object themselves in terms of their body surveillance by adopting such form of unconsciousness, where they look at their bodies external appearance and become highly afraid on how their people or her society will perceive their body physical appearance as sais by Wood (126). Self-objection to ladies results to depression, this problem increases a complete human functioning and my end up resulting to of multiple life tasks. Moreover, women representation in the media can result to sexual dysfunction in accordance to Omaro (437). Which one openly witness or sees people in the act of sex like in pornography, this results to one focusing on ones body and in the process of sexual relations a woman is fully destructed by thoughts about her body instead of having pleasure. According to Pruis (231) presenting young attractive black women in the media fetches a lot of anxiety to aged women. Critics see that this is featuring men to be entitled on womens bodies this results to objection of young women by men of their age. In addition it is unrealistic expectations by men on how women should behave. This behavior brings in great pain men. Ladies should not expose their bodies to the public through media because this may end up them being despised and facing objection from men as said by Sayce (339). Representations of pornographies in the media increases high chances of sex with violence. This draws interest to sexual desires as this may results to some case of rape. Ladies have been identified to risk their own life so as to attain the media standards. Despite there being cones in stereotyping black women in the media, there are advantages relating to work of (Browne 59). These disadvantages include, women increases powerful force at the workforce and market places. Women are highly used in various areas at market places where they help in connecting factors in work place like making advertisements and act as connecting factor to the consumption of goods at the workplace by the consumers. Women are very influencing when it comes to the marketing of the product. Making use of the black women in making advertisement attracts big market for the products. Eccles (587) states that women entry to making advertisement is seen as a profession. Advertisement is considered a profession like any other profession like engineering, medicine among others. Some women take advertisement as their profession. These women make use of advertisement as their source of income to cope with their day to day needs and wants. According to women who do adver tisements, advertisement is understood in relations of identity (Alvesson 969). Finally making use of black women for advertisement creates more opportunities for them. These women meet with different people in areas they make advertisement as a result some end up getting good jobs and even getting special award. Their portrayal in the media may bring in change of their life style and adopt new lifestyles due to best opportunities they meet in life. At some point gets to be employed as the head of field of making presentations. In general making use of the black women for media representation has its disadvantages and advantages. This representation in the media came as a result of western culture. At a point its seen to go against the human rights for example when a woman is presented naked in the media. The disadvantages seen as a result of using black women for media representation outweighs the advantages thus the femininity should come in to defend rights of these women. These media representation not only affect women but also men. Men at a point are influenced after seeing naked women presented in the media. Therefore only the positive presentations that should be presented. Works Cited Alvesson, Mats. Gender relations and identity at work: A case study of masculinities and femininities in an advertising agency. Human Relations 51.8 (1998): 969-1005. Amaro, Hortensia. Love, sex, and power: Considering womens realities in HIV prevention. American psychologist 50.6 (1995): 437. Bobo, Jacqueline, and Ellen Seiter. Black feminism and media criticism: The Women of Brewster Place. Screen 32.3 (1991): 286-302. Browne, Kath. Snowball sampling: using social networks to research non?heterosexual women. International journal of social research methodology 8.1 (2005): 47-60. Eccles, Jacquelynne S. Understanding womens educational and occupational choices. Psychology of women quarterly 18.4 (1994): 585-609. Park, Ji Hoon, Nadine G. Gabbadon, and Ariel R. Chernin. Naturalizing racial differences through comedy: Asian, Black, and White views on racial stereotypes in Rush Hour 2. Journal of Communication 56.1 (2006): 157-177. Pruis, Trisha A., and Jeri S. Janowsky. Assessment of body image in younger and older women. The Journal of General Psychology: Experimental, Psychological, and Comparative Psychology 137.3 (2010): 225-238. Sayce, Liz. Stigma, discrimination and social exclusion: Whats in a word?. Journal of Mental Health 7.4 (1998): 331-343. Wood, Helen. Talking with television: Women, talk shows, and modern self-reflexivity. Vol. 4. University of Illinois Press, 2009: 123-131.

How Media Affect Peoples Subconscious Judgments - 1200 Words

Thu Nguyen Professor Jenelle Herman ESL 186 06 Dec 2016 How Media Affect People’s Subconscious Judgments Nowadays, society is growing and becoming more modern, so media take a significant role which has a big effect on people’s lives. Media are all the organizations, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, Internet, and more, that provide news and information to the public. The human subconscious mind is considered as information storage. Thus, media influence people’s subconscious daily through news, advertisements, games, movies, and the internet; they might impact people’s minds in positive and negative ways. Sometimes, people have subconscious judgments to a particular thing or a specific person subjectively due to being†¦show more content†¦As a result, people behave and think negatively under the bad impacts of media. Moreover, by overgeneralizing information about specific religions from media, people can have religious prejudices. For instance, in Chapter 8, â€Å"Framing Muslim â₠¬â€œ Americans before and after 9/11,† in the book Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government and the Public, the authors state that in the United States media, the Arab and Muslim Americans are described as terrorists (133). Also, people will keep a distance with Muslims, they don’t even want to work or to participate in social activities with the presence of Muslims. Clearly, after the event of September 11, Muslims became the victims of religious prejudices. In brief, leading prejudices about race and religion are one specific way that media influence people’s subconscious judgments. The second way that media influence people’s subconscious judgments is by causing negative reactions through consumer’s behavior and violent movies. In a consumer world, media have directly affected people’s behavior in the consumer market by showing information about products excessively. A good example for this is people can easily stay in contact wit h media advertisements. That means, they are constantly conscious of brands and images. Images of products can stimulate people to buy those products without the appraisal. According to the experiments in the article â€Å"Affect, Appraisal, and Consumer Judgment,† theShow MoreRelatedHow Media Affect People s Subconscious Judgments1200 Words   |  5 PagesJune 2017 Exploratory Essay How Media Affect People’s Subconscious Judgments Nowadays, society is growing and becoming more modern, so media take a significant role which has a big effect on people’s lives. Media are all the organizations, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, Internet, and more, that provide news and information to the public. The human subconscious mind is considered as information storage. 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